Recent scientific findings advocate supplementing dairy cows with rumen-protected choline to optimize fetal programming on a genetic level, resulting in enduring health and productivity advantages for their offspring.

Director of Technical Services
Balchem ANH
The foundation for calf well-being and performance is laid long before birth. One critical element in this process is the essential nutrient choline and the methyl-group donors it delivers during pregnancy and lactation. As late pregnancy approaches, choline takes on a pivotal role. Inadequate choline delivered to the dam can negatively impact gene expression in the calf, a phenomenon known as epigenetics.
The consequences of choline deficiency during gestation are profound, influencing placental development, fetal growth, cognitive function, and the calf’s immune system. However, recent research suggests that rumen-protected choline can offer a vital solution.
Supplying the necessary methyl donors to the dam during the final trimester of pregnancy optimizes fetal programming, yielding substantial health and productivity gains for the calf throughout its lifetime. Understanding the intricate connection between nutrition, epigenetics, and calf well-being equips dairy producers to make informed decisions for their herds’ future.
CHOLINE AND EPIGENETICS IN DAMS
The nutritional and care regimen for cows can exert a lasting influence on the development of their calves, a phenomenon often linked to epigenetic changes occurring while the calf is in utero. Epigenetics refers to modifications in an offspring’s phenotype caused by genetic alterations like methylation, rather than changes in the DNA base pairs themselves. These changes influence how an individual functions and behaves without altering its genetic code.
While extensive research on the impact of epigenetics has been conducted in human medicine and with laboratory animals, cattle have received comparatively less attention in this area. Dr. José Santos from the University of Florida likens the effects of epigenetics on offspring to the adverse outcomes of smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy in humans.
Both nutritional factors and external stressors, such as heat stress, during gestation can influence the offspring, resulting in smaller, less productive calves, and sometimes, these effects persist throughout their lives. Some of these changes may be attributed to epigenetic modifications in the calf.
Dr. Santos mentions an interesting finding, “We’ve shown that male calves born to dams supplemented with rumen-protected choline and fed colostrum from similarly treated dams displayed improved immunoglobulin absorption. These same calves exhibited reduced inflammatory responses when exposed to bacterial compounds simulating infectious diseases.”

The University of Florida research also showed that calves from supplemented dams grew faster than calves not exposed to choline in utero. Researchers saw an improvement in growth of about 0,05 kg per day, resulting in heifers being 36 kg heavier at first calving (see Figure 1). This initial growth also resulted in heifers that produced 524 kg more milk during their first lactation.
He adds that the effects of specific nutrients, like choline, on calves are still emerging, with considerable room for further exploration compared to other well-established research areas.
Dr. Heather White from the University of Wisconsin – Madison, who recently concluded a research project on prepartum feeding rates of rumen-protected choline, provides insights into the methylation process. Methylation involves the attachment of a methyl group to DNA’s histone, the structural component around which DNA is wound, determining its level of compaction.
“In essence, if the DNA is tightly wound, it remains unread at a specific moment,” White explains. “Methylation can activate or deactivate genes, and some methylation modifications endure throughout the offspring’s lifetime.”
The process of DNA methylation, along with other aspects of epigenetics, can be significantly influenced by the dam’s nutrition during gestation, shaping the calf’s gene expression.
In the context of dairy cattle, rumen-protected choline supplementation has been studied for more than 25 years, primarily during the prepartum and early postpartum phases. Cows consistently respond positively to this supplementation, resulting in increased milk production, energy-corrected milk production, and dry matter intake. Furthermore, the latest research demonstrates that calves born to these choline supplemented cows also experience enduring benefits in terms of growth and overall health.
Due to choline’s sensitivity to the rumen environment, it necessitates protective measures to avoid degradation within the cow’s rumen. Encapsulation is a method that shields the nutrient from the harsh rumen microbial environment, enabling it to pass through the rumen intact and ultimately be absorbed and utilized in the small intestine.
In the absence of supplemental choline, many cows fall short in choline levels.
White emphasizes, “Choline acts as a methyl donor. We understand its role as a methyl donor in adult animals. When we provide it during pregnancy, it may contribute to the methylation of fetal DNA, potentially explaining its lasting influence on calf growth beyond birth.”
White also highlights that several choline studies have extended their observation period to 100 days or more postpartum, as opposed to the typical 21-day window, consistently revealing positive responses in milk production that endure well into the distant postpartum period.
“It’s crucial for individuals to bear in mind that the benefits of choline supplementation are not short-lived; they persist in the long term,” White affirms.
A GLIMPSE INTO LONG-TERM CALF PERFORMANCE
Dr. White’s research revealed intriguing results, with calves born to choline-supplemented dams displaying improved gut integrity markers when facing bloat challenges. Angus-Holstein crossbred animals also exhibited benefits in terms of daily gain, growth, feed efficiency, and marbling, all the way to the slaughter stage. Importantly, these effects were observed in both male and female animals.
The study found that the maternal treatment had a lasting impact on calf performance, extending up to 16 months of age, despite the calves themselves never directly receiving rumen-protected choline supplementation.
FUTURE EXPLORATION
The full extent of the impact of feeding rumen-protected choline to cows during pregnancy on calves due to epigenetic modifications and its potential perpetuation across generations remains a subject of ongoing research.
Dr. Santos points to emerging evidence suggesting that nutritional interventions during pregnancy can affect the epigenome of calves, possibly transmitting these changes to future generations. This concept finds support in studies conducted on mice and humans, indicating the transmission of epigenetic effects across generations.
He references studies conducted by his colleagues, Geoffrey Dahl and Jimena LaPorta, which discovered that offspring from dairy cows that received evaporative cooling during their dry periods were more productive into the second generation compared to those from cows that did not receive such cooling during periods of summer heat stress. Similar trends have been observed in research involving mice and humans, highlighting the transgenerational effects of epigenetics.
With the clear benefits of choline supplementation during the transition period and the promising initial research on the effects of choline supplementation to dams, it is likely that dairy producers will increasingly adopt rumen-protected choline supplementation. Continued research will help refine supplementation practices and uncover more short- and long-term benefits for both dams and offspring.
Dr. Santos notes, “Research is ongoing to better understand the effects of choline on calves and to ascertain the consistency of findings across different management scenarios and conditions. The promising results suggest that this trend is likely to continue.”
About Dr. Clay Zimmerman
Dr. Clay Zimmerman obtained his Bachelor of Science degree in Dairy Science from Virginia Tech and earned his Master’s and Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from North Carolina State University. For the first 22 years of his career, Dr. Zimmerman served as the head dairy nutritionist for two large feed companies in the United States, one in the Midwestern United States, and one in the Northeastern United States. He joined Balchem Corporation in 2013 and has served in various roles such as Technical Services Specialist and Global Protein Platform Manager. Dr. Zimmerman currently serves as the Director of ANH Technical Services for Balchem Corporation. In this role he also oversees all of Balchem’s external animal research.