ARTICLE F&A Alternative Proteins Edition April 2023 51 fatty acid that cannot be synthesized, and so must be obtained from the diet, is linoleic acid (Baião and Lara, 2005), which is found in black soldier fly oil (linoleic acid represents around 22% of the fatty acid profile in Entolipid). In freshwater fish and swine, the essential fatty acids are linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids (Guillaume et al., 1999; Liu, 2015). Black soldier fly oil can be used as a complement to another oil source rich in alpha-linolenic acid, such as soybean, rapeseed, or even flaxseed oil. Regarding marine fish, arachidonic fatty acid, EPA and DHA are also essential (Guillaume et al., 1999). Black soldier fly oil, enriched with EPA and DHA if needed, could be used as a partial substitute to fish oil, representing thus a much more sustainable alternative. The same considerations apply to formulate pet food, as the essential fatty acids for marine fish, dogs and cats are the same (National Research Council, 2016). The key asset of black soldier fly oil is to be a sustainable source of lauric acid: it does not simply provide a balanced diet, but it is also highly beneficial for animal health. FUNCTIONALITIES OF BLACK SOLDIER FLY OIL AND THEIR IMPACT ON ANIMAL HEALTH Beyond the fact that black soldier fly oil is able to fulfill the metabolic requirements of various animals, it also promotes animal health. Lauric acid has a demonstrated antimicrobial effect (Yoon et al., 2018). In particular, lauric acid destabilizes bacterial cell membranes (becoming permeable) and inhibits their exchanges and energy metabolism (Borrelli et al., 2021), which ultimately leads to bacteria death. For example, lauric acid is effective against Staphylococcus species, Streptococcus species, Helicobacter pylori, Clostridium perfringens or Propionibacterium acnes (Yoon et al., 2018). Beneficial effects of black soldier fly oil on gut microbiome, and thus animal health, have already been demonstrated in rabbits (Dabbou et al., 2020), piglets (Spranghers et al., 2018), turkey (Sypniewski et al., 2020) and Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii; Józefiak et al., 2019). In the case of turkey, black soldier fly oil did not only inhibit the development of pathogenic bacteria, but it also reduced gastrointestinal tract inflammation (Sypniewski et al., 2020). In Siberian sturgeon, Rawski et al. (2021) demonstrated that black soldier fly oil had beneficial effects on the development of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly a larger pyloric caeca and surface of the intestinal villi. In broiler chickens, Chen et al. (2022) reported that the inclusion of black soldier fly oil within the diet increased the blood plasma levels of immunoglobulins (antibodies) and interleukins (regulating immune response), suggesting the animals’ immune system was strengthened. In 2022, Veolia conducted a trial (Verstraete et al., 2023) on juvenile whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) fed with 2% inclusion of Entolipid plus 2% inclusion of Entomeal™, at Kasetsart University (Thailand). After 45 days of feeding, the shrimps fed with black soldier fly ingredients were 26% heavier than the ones fed without. Reference Entolipid Rapeseed oil Soybean oil Palm oil Sunflower oil Palm kernel oil Coconut oil 48.2 18.5 8.7 2.7 6.0 1.8 28.0 6.9 17.9 2.5 9.3 21.7 0.5 0.1 6.4 4.5 22.1 65.6 46.0 17.8 8.4 1.6 16.4 3.1 0 0.1 5.1 1.7 60.1 21.5 0 0.1 10.8 3.9 23.9 52.1 0.4 1.1 43.8 4.4 39.1 10.2 Lauric acid (C12:0) Myristic acid (C14:0) Palmitic acid (C16:0) Stearic acid (C18:0) Oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) Linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) Table 2. Fatty acid profiles of palm, soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, palm kernel and coconut oils (in % of abundance), adapted from Dubois et al. (2007), to which were added Entolipid insect oil data.
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